Subjective Well-being Concept: Strengths and Weaknesses

Subjective Well-being Concept: Strengths and Weaknesses Subjective wellbeing: A critical discussion of its strengths and weaknesses Subjective Wellbeing is a new science and has to do with how people see their lives in terms of personal satisfaction (Diener, Suh, and Oishi, 2005, pg. 1). It can be affected by moods, illness, positive and negative emotions, economic status, and many other factors. The concept of Subjective Wellbeing has been around for a long time; however it has only been in recent years that researchers have studied and tested it. All those involved admit that it is not the final word and more research needs to be conducted (Frank, 2005, pgs. 69-79). Subjective Wellbeing has strengths, but there are also limitations. Subjective Wellbeing studies are important and valuable in that they provide us with a deeper understanding of human nature and they give us information that will assist us in improving the quality of life for others. Much progress has been made in researching the area of subjective wellbeing, but most of the current literature in this field indicates there are limitations. One of the strengths of Subjective Wellbeing is its usefulness in improving the quality of life. Emmons and McCullough (2003) conducted a study on the effects of gratitude on wellbeing. Participants were randomly assigned conditions. They were asked to meditate once a week or once a day for 2-3 weeks on what in their life they can be grateful for. They claim the results of this study were significant in their positive impact on wellbeing. They had to admit that they did not know how long the results would last (pg. 386). Subjective Wellbeing studies are usually administered as questionnaires and can give us a good indication as to quality of life for individuals providing the term â€Å"wellbeing† is clearly defined (Muldoon, Barger, Flory, and Manuck, 2003, pp. 542-545). Any abstract study of this nature must have clear definitions of key terms such as â€Å"wellbeing†, yet not necessarily a highly defined term as most people instinctively know what makes their lives better or happy. On the other hand, there are some scientists that are critical of the notion that most people know instinctively what gives them a sense of wellbeing. These critics claim that wellbeing can mean different things to different people. There are critics who do not believe that people necessarily have the ability to make an accurate assessment of their own wellbeing. The argument has been presented that people can become quite adaptable to less than favorable circumstances and conditions and will answer the qu estionnaire in a manner that is not completely honest. They may have become used to lowered living conditions and therefore would regard themselves inaccurately as having greater satisfaction than what they would normally report. Critics of this subjective study also have a problem with the lack of objective reference points. They believe it makes it difficult to compare people’s assessments of their own wellbeing (Van Bruggen, 2001, pg. 10-12). When reviewing the answers to the questionnaires it would appear that there is a common thread in the way people respond to them. This allows us to believe many of the same things give people a sense of wellbeing, yet when the answers are examined more closely idiosyncrasies are revealed. When investigated in depth it appears there are differences in what determines wellbeing for each individual. It would be important to ask the right questions. This would require an understanding of what constitutes wellbeing. The question arises as to what human goals or needs are the building blocks for Subjective Wellbeing. If we want to understand what makes for wellbeing we must determine universal goals and needs. These goals and needs are supposed to represent the components of Subjective Wellbeing. If these goals and needs are fulfilled, then it is believed that the individual will score high on subjective wellbeing. If this is true then those needs and goals must be identified. It is not on ly the achievement of those goals and needs that contributes to wellbeing, but also the way they are achieved. Within the context of goals and needs are many questions, such as if there is greater satisfaction through them being met through personal achievement or luck (Van Bruggen, 2001, pg. 10-12). One question researchers have regarding these Subjective Wellbeing studies is if a person’s sense of wellbeing is consistent and stable. Critics of Subjective Wellbeing question the study participants’ truthfulness and reliability. It has been determined that the respondents’ mood when taking the questionnaire can bring about an inaccurate outcome (Muldoon, Barger, Flory, and Manuck, 2003, pgs. 542-545). In a study conducted to determine the affect of mood on Subjective Wellbeing, Robinson (2000) states: Although laboratory studies can highlight the effects of mood  on processing and judgment, they cannot tell us about how  people evaluate their daily lives. By measuring naturally occurring  life events, mood states, and cognitive WB, the present investigation  sought to fill this gap. In particular, the primary purpose  of these studies was to understand the relation between daily  experiences and cognitive WB. The results of cross-sectional  and longitudinal designs reveal that the relation between life  events and cognitive WB is entirely mediated by mood states. Mood states appear to serve both reactive and prospective  functions, and are therefore the key to cognitive WB change (page 10). Another factor to be considered in Subjective Wellbeing studies is that of personality traits. Certain personality traits can influence the outcome of the questionnaire skewing the results. Chan, Ungvari, Shek, and Leung (2003) conducted a study to determine the quality of life of Chinese patients with schizophrenia. Their study was longitudinally based and they report this was the strength of their research. They claim this longitudinal design provided for greater accuracy because it regulated â€Å"influence of personal characteristics on dependent variables† (page 3). One of the limitations of their study is that the sample size was too small and they lacked a matched control group (page 3). In considering personality traits affecting the outcome of Subjective Wellbeing studies the question of IQ has been explored. Researchers led by Professor Ian Deary at the Edinburgh University in Scotland conducted a study where they recruited 500 volunteers who agreed to have their IQ’s tested. The participants had their IQ’s tested at the age of 11 years old and then at the age of 80 years old. The results of this test were that there was no correlation between their IQ’s and overall life satisfaction. What the researchers did find was that health played a factor in life satisfaction but not the intelligence level of the individual. Oftentimes a higher IQ causes the individual to place more demands and higher expectations on themselves. This can set the individual up for disappointment and therefore lower Subjective Wellbeing scores (Deary, et. al. 2005, pgs. 141-142.) An interesting model was created that did not address life satisfaction directly but nevertheless had an impact on Subjective Wellbeing. This model was developed to determine emotional-social intelligence (ESI) and was called the Bar-On model. This model measured behavior and performance and it proved to be consistent over time and highly accurate across cultures. Although the Bar-On model was not used specifically for measuring Subjective Wellbeing its results were very important and gave scientists information that can be applied in this area. What this model revealed were the areas in an individual that could use improvement in order to enhance overall life satisfaction. This model’s strength is its usefulness in many different areas and that it is highly teachable. It could be very useful in schools, for example. As with other models, longitudinal studies are required to obtain greater understanding and also acquire more accurate outcomes (Bar-On, R, 2005, pg. 20). Frank (2005) states the methods used to measure Subjective Wellbeing oftentimes do a fairly good job of monitoring the experiences we have that we are consciously aware of but there are limitations. One of the limitations is that there may be other things that are more important to us than those experiences we are cognitively aware of. He gives the following example: Suppose we lived in parallel universes and in one of those universes you earned $100,000 a year and in the other one you earned $200,000 a year. Suppose the individual would feel equally happy in either universe. Then consider that the people who lived in the wealthier universe would be inclined to spend more money on keeping a cleaner environment resulting in a longer and happier life for everyone. Frank states it is obvious that people would be better off living in the richer universe. His point is that there may be other things that are more important to us that we are not consciously aware of at this time; therefore the results of Subjective Wellbeing measures may not be accurate (pgs. 69-79). As we can see there are limitations to Subjective Wellbeing as a measure for life satisfaction, yet it has enough strength that it is still an important and useful emerging science. References Bar-On, R. (2005). The Bar-On model of emotional-social intelligence (ESI).  Issues in Emotional Intelligence, (1)4, pp. 1-28. In P. Fernà ¡ndez-Berrocal and  N. Extremera (Guest Editors), Special Issue on Emotional Intelligence.  Psicothema, 17. Chan, G.W.L.; Ungvari G.S.;, Shek, D.T.L.; Leung, J.P. (2003).  Impact of deinstitutionalisation on the quality of life of Chinese patients with  schizophrenia: A longitudinal pilot study. Hong Kong J Psychiatry, 13(4), pp. 2-5. Deary, A.; Gow, A.; Whiteman, M.; Pattie, M.; Whalley, L.; and Starr, J. (Jul 2005).  Lifetime intellectual function and satisfaction with life in old age:  longitudinal cohort study. BMJ. 331, pp. 141–142. Diener, E.; Suh, E.; and Oishi, S. Recent Findings on Subjective Well-Being (2005,  pg. 1). Retrieved August 1, 2005 from  http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~ediener/hottopic/paper1.html Emmons, R.A. and McCullough, M.E. (2003). Counting blessings versus burdens:  An experimental investigation of gratitude and subjective wellbeing in daily life.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 84, No. 2, pp. 377-389. Frank, R.H. (Spring, 2004). How not to buy happiness. Daedalus. Vol. 133, Issue 2,  pp. 69-79. Muldoon, M.F.; Barger, S.D.; Flory, J.D.; Manuck, S.B. (14 Feb. 1998). What are  quality of life measurements measuring? BMJ, 316, pp. 542-545. Robinson, M.D. (2000). The reactive and prospective functions of mood:  Its role in linking daily experiences and cognitive well-being. Cognition and Emotion,  14(2), pp. 145-176. Van Bruggen, A.C. (2001). Individual production of social well-being: an  exploratory study. pp. 1-16. Retrieved August 1, 2005 from  http://dissertations.ub.rug.nl

Economics †Product Differentiation in Monopoly Essay

Monopolies are firms that are the sole or dominant suppliers of a good or service in a given market. And what sets apart monopolies from competitive firms is â€Å"market power†- the ability of a firm to affect the market price. Price discrimination is the business practice of selling the same good at different prices to different customers, even though the cost of production is the same for all customers. Only monopolies can practice price discrimination, because otherwise competition would prevent price discrimination. Price discrimination increases the monopolist’s profits, reduces the consumer surplus and reduces the deadweight loss. (the buyers of the lower-priced product should not be able to resell the product to the higher-priced market. Otherwise, the monopoly will not be able to maintain price differentials. ) The monopolist must be able to identify segments of the market that are willing to pay different prices, and then market its products accordingly. A common technique to achieve this is by making it harder to get the lower prices, since wealthier consumers value their time more than their money. Some ways the monopolistic firms can implement discriminatory pricing are; †¢Linear Approximation Technique or Markup Pricing Technique †¢Personalized Pricing – extracting the maximum amount a customer is willing to pay for the product. †¢Coupons and Rebates – providing coupons to attract more customers or providing personalized discounts. †¢Bulk pricing – offering lower prices when customer buys a huge quantity of the same product. †¢Bundling – joining products or services together in order to sell them as a single combined unit. Block pricing – Charging more for the first set of the product, then less for each additional product bought by the same consumer. †¢Group Pricing- charging different customers different price based on factors such as race, gender, age, abilities etc. and also â€Å"psychographic segmentation†- dividing consumers based on their lifestyle, personality, values, and social class. †¢Charging different prices based on geographic location. Some products may be cheaper to produce in different places and based on the cost of the good sold the monopolistic firm can charge different prices in order to maximize its profits. Placing restrictions or other â€Å"inferior† characteristics on the low-price good or service, so as to make it sufficiently less attractive to the high price segment †¢Establishing a schedule of â€Å"volume discounts† (â€Å"block pricing†) such that only large-volume buyers (who may have more elastic demands) qualify †¢Using a two-part tariff, where the customer pays an up-front fee for the right to buy the product and then pays additional fees for each unit of the product consumed.

The Impact of Christianity on Western Civilization

The Influence of Christianity on Western Civilization The positive influence of Christianity is far reaching especially in the rich history and culture of Western Civilization despite a long standing ignorance or adamant denial of its contributions. The Bible itself is responsible for much of the language, literature, and fine arts we enjoy today as its artists and composers were heavily influenced by its writings. Paul Maier, in writing the forward to the book How Christianity Changed the World by Alvin J.Schmidt, says this about the profound impact Christianity has had on the development of Western Civilization: â€Å"No other religion, philosophy, teaching, nation, movement—whatever—has so changed the world for the better as Christianity has done. Its shortcomings, clearly conceded by this author, are nevertheless heavily outweighed by its benefits to all mankind† (Schmidt 9). Contrary to the history texts treatment of the subject, Christian influence on value s, beliefs, and practices in Western culture are abundant and well ingrained into the flourishing society of today (Schmidt 12).In the Old Testament book of Hosea the writer states: â€Å"my people are destroyed for lack of knowledge,† a statement that can well be applied to those today who are forgetful of the past (The Reformation Study Bible, Hosea 4. 6a). Schmidt writes regarding liberty and justice as seen by today’s culture: â€Å"The liberty and justice that are enjoyed by humans in Western societies and in some non-Western countries are increasingly seen as the products of a benevolent, secular government that is the provider of all things.There seems to be no awareness that the liberties and rights that are currently operative in free societies of the West are to a great degree the result of Christianity’s influence (248). History is replete with examples of individuals who acted as a law unto themselves â€Å"often curtailing, even obliterating the n atural rights and freedoms of the country’s citizens (249). Christianity’s influence, however, set into motion the belief that man is accountable to God and that the law is the same regardless of status.More than one thousand years before the birth of Christ the biblical requirement given by Moses comprised an essential component of the principle that â€Å"no man is above the law. † One witness is not enough to convict a man accused of any crime or offense he may have committed. A matter must be established by the testimony of two or three witnesses. (Deuteronomy 19. 15) Thus the accuser, regardless of position in society, could not arbitrarily incarcerate or execute the accused and was himself subject to the law.The New Testament also mandated two or more witnesses in ecclesiastical matters regarding an erring Christian in Matthew 18:15-17 (Schmidt 249). The criminal and justice systems of many free countries today employ this Judeo-Christian requirement of ha ving witnesses testify and in British and American jurisprudence, witnesses are part of â€Å"due process of law,’ a legal concept first appearing under King Edward III in the fourteenth century (Schmidt 249). One startling example of the concept that no man is above the law is seen in the conflict between the Christian emperor Theodosius the Great and St. Ambrose. It happened in 300 A. D. hen some in Thessalonica rioted and aroused the anger of the emperor who overreacted by slaughtering approximately seven thousand people, most of whom were innocent. Bishop Ambrose asked the emperor to repent and when Theodosius refused, the bishop excommunicated him. After a month Theodosius prostrated himself and repented in Ambrose’s cathedral. Often mistaken as a struggle for power between church and state, the evidence in which Ambrose’s letter to the emperor cited sole concern for the emperor’s spiritual welfare conclude this as being the first instance of applyi ng the principle that no one is above the law (Schmidt 250).The Magna Carta served as a courageous precedent some five hundred years later to the American patriots in the creation of the unique government of the United States. The charter, signed in 1215 at Runnymede by King John granted a number of rights never held before this historic occasion including that â€Å"(1) justice could no longer be sold or denied to freeman who were under authority of barons; (2) no taxes could be levied without epresentation; (3) no one would be imprisoned without a trial; and (4) property could not be taken from the owner without just compensation (Schmidt 251). The Magna Carta had important Christian ties as demonstrated by its preamble that began, â€Å"John, by the grace of God†¦,† and stated that the charter was formulated out of â€Å"reverence for God and for the salvation of our soul and those of all our ancestors and heirs, for the honour of God and the exaltation of Holy Chur ch and the reform of our realm, on the advice of our reverend [church] fathers† (Schmidt 251).This document also followed the precedent established in 325 at the Council of Nicaea in which Christian bishops wrote and adopted a formal code of fundamental beliefs to which all Christians were expected to adhere. The Magna Carta displayed what its formulators as Christians expected of the king and his subjects regarding civic liberties (Schmidt 251). Natural law is a concept with a long history dating back to the Greco-Roman philosophers.Despite some variations among philosophers one point of agreement was understood as â€Å"that process in nature by which human beings, through the use of sound reason, were able to perceive what was morally right and wrong† (Schmidt253). With the emergence of Christianity common law was clarified to state that â€Å"natural law was not an entity by itself but part of God’s created order in nature through which he made all rational human beings aware of what is right and wrong† (Schmidt 253). The Apostle Paul expressed this in the New Testament book of Romans: For when Gentiles, who do not have the law, by nature do what the law requires, they are a law to themselves, even though they do not have the law. They show that the work of the law is written on their hearts, while their conscience also bears witness, and their conflicting thoughts accuse or even excuse them† (Romans 2. 14-15). Martin Luther stated: â€Å"Why does one then teach the Ten Commandments? Because the natural laws were never so orderly and well written as by Moses† (Schmidt 253).In his Two Treatises of Government, physician and political philosopher John Locke (1632-1703) claimed that government existed only to uphold the natural law and that governmental tyranny violated the natural rights of man (Schmidt 253). Natural rights were derived from nature and not from kings or government. The renowned English scholar Sir Willi am Blackstone had immense influence on the American patriots in the eighteenth century who used his Commentaries of the Laws of England (1765) while formulating the fledgling government as evidenced by the Declaration of Independence.The words â€Å"the Law of Nature and of Nature’s God† document the reliability on the Christian understanding of the natural law (Schmidt 254). The Declaration of Independence goes on to state that â€Å"whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute new government,† thus reiterating the concept of â€Å"inalienable rights† given by nature. The term â€Å"self-evident† has Christian roots going back to theological writings of the eighth century.Schmidt quotes Gary Amos, author of Defending the Declaration, as saying: â€Å"To the medievalists, ‘self-evident’ knowledge was truth known intuitively, as direct revelati on from God, without the need for proofs. The term presumed that man was created in the image of God, and presumed certain beliefs about man’s rationality which can be traced as far back as Augustine in the early fifth century† (pp. 254-55). Schmidt believes it is quite plausible that St. Paul’s biblical concept of â€Å"self-evident† (Romans 1. 20) knowingly or unknowingly influenced Jefferson when he wrote the term into the Declaration (Schmidt 255).The last portion of the Declaration includes the phrase â€Å"Supreme Judge,† a term used in Locke’s The Second Treatise of Government, where he refers to Jephthah calling God â€Å"the Judge† in Israel’s fight against the Ammonites (Judges 11. 27). If this is taken from Locke’s work, Amos contends, â€Å"then we have a direct link between the Bible and the Declaration of Independence (Schmidt 255). The Constitution, the hallmark of the foundling government in America, was greatly influenced by the French Christian and philosopher Baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) as evidenced by the three branches of America’s government.Schmidt makes note that one historian has said that Montesquieu’s book, The Spirit of the Laws (1748), â€Å"[gave] American Constitution writers their holy writ† and called Montesquieu â€Å"the godfather of the American Constitution† (256). Montesquieu’s political theory was incorporated into the Constitution mostly as a result of the role taken by James Madison, known as the principal architect. His arguments for a separation of powers stemmed from the Christian teaching of the fallen nature of man. He is quoted as saying, ‘The truth [is] that all men, having power ought to be distrusted, to a certain degree. In his Federalist Paper number 51 he notes, â€Å"If men were angels, no government would be necessary† (Schmidt 257). Many history texts have made note that the three powers are derived from Montesquieu’s theory but have failed to note the influence of Christianity on his beliefs: â€Å"It is not enough for a religion to establish a doctrine; it must also direct its influence. This the Christian religion performs in the most admirable manner, especially with respect to the doctrines of which we have been speaking.It makes us hope for a state which is the object of our belief; not for a state which we have already experienced or known† (Schmidt 257). The founding of America’s republic government can best be described as the pinnacle of our American Christian heritage. Noah Webster defined government in his American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) as: â€Å"Direction; regulation. ‘These precepts will serve for the government of our conduct. ’ Control; restraint. ‘Men are apt to neglect the government of their temper and passions. â€Å" Thus Webster defines government in a way that reflects the biblical con cept of governmental authority, that is, beginning with the individual and extending outward to include all institutions (DeMar, God and Government, pp. 4-5). The Founding Fathers recognized the importance of self-government. As DeMar states, â€Å"A self-governed individual is someone who can regulate his attitudes and actions without the need for external coercion† (14). Believing God’s law to be the sole standard for determining right and wrong John Adams wrote, â€Å"Our Constitution was made only for a moral and religious people.It is inadequate to the government of any other. † The words of Hugo Grotius (1583-1645) reveal the mindset of many who fled to the shores of America in search of religious freedom: â€Å"He knows not how to rule a Kingdom, that cannot manage a Province; nor can he wield a Province, that cannot order a City; nor he order a City, that knows not how to regulate a Village; nor he a Family that knows not how to Govern himself; neither can any Govern himself unless his reason be Lord, Will and Appetite her Vassals; nor can Reason rule unless herself ruled by God, and (wholly) be obedient to Him. †Though the Constitution does not implicitly assume a Christian nation or acknowledgement of the providence of God in national affairs, an omission greatly regretted by the Christian public at the time of adoption (Morris 296), fundamentals of Christianity were incorporated into the State Constitutions of the Revolution which demonstrated the Christian life and character of our civil institutions (Morris 269). Among other things, the influence of Christianity has spread into the concept of freedom and rights of the individual. Without this freedom there is no real freedom on the economic, political, or religious level (Schmidt 258).From its inception, Christianity has placed a high value on the individual in stark contrast to the Greco-Roman culture in which the individual was always subordinate to the state (Schmidt 259). Malcolm Muggeridge, once a non-Christian but later a strong defender of Christianity, said, â€Å"We must not forget that our human rights are derived from the Christian faith. In Christian terms every single human being, whoever he or she may be, sick or well, clever or foolish, beautiful or ugly, every human being is loved by his Creator, who as the Gospels tell us, counted the hairs of his head. † (Schmidt 260).Individual freedom has led to many positive effects in the history of Western society. One essential aspect of this began with individuals such as Tertullian, Lactantius, St. Augustine, and later Martin Luther who promoted religious freedom. Luther, standing before Emperor Charles V and the Diet of Worms in 1521 declared: â€Å"Unless I am convicted by Scripture and plain reason—I do not accept the authority of popes and councils, for they have contradicted each other—my conscience is captive to the word of God. I cannot and will not recent any thing, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe.God help me, Amen. † The First Amendment echoes the desire of prominent Christian forbears in promoting religious liberty and freedom of the individual (Schmidt 263). Christianity’s influence on education can be seen at its very inception with the teachings of Jesus who used words, parables, and human-life illustrations and taught others who then would become teachers themselves (Schmidt 170). Schmidt notes that the earliest Christians were mostly Jews who came from a long-standing tradition that valued formal education. St.Paul in his epistles makes references to Christians teaching in Ephesus, Corinth, Rome, Thessalonica, as well as other places (171). Teaching continued after the death of the apostles and in the very early church (A. D. 80-110) the Didache, basically an instruction manual for new converts to Christianity, appeared. Ignatius, a bishop of Antioch in the first decade of the second century, in sisted that children be taught the Scriptures and a skilled trade, a concept carried over from the Jews (Schmidt 171). Jesus Christ’s command to the disciples and all Christians was to teach people â€Å"all things† that he commanded him.Newcomers, in preparation for baptism and church membership, were taught orally by the question and answer method. Both men and women over a period of two to three years were catechized and first were instructed in the teacher’s home (Schmidt 171). These types of instruction lead to formal catechetical schools with a strong emphasis on the literary. Justin Martyr, around A. D. 150, established schools in Ephesus and in Rome. Other schools quickly spread throughout the regions. The school is Alexandria, Egypt was well noted for its literary qualities (Schmidt 171).Christian doctrine was the primary focus of these schools though the one in Alexandria also taught mathematics and medicine and when Origen succeeded Clement he added g rammar classes (Schmidt 172). Although Christians were not the first to engage in formal teaching it appears they were the first to teach both sexes in the same setting. Schmidt notes W. M. Ramsey as stating that Christianity’s aim was â€Å"universal education, not education confined to the rich, as among Greeks and Romans†¦and it [made] no distinction of sex† (172).St. Augustine once said that Christian women were better informed in divine matters than the pagan male philosophers (Schmidt 172). Details on the education of children are not known until the fourth to the tenth century when cathedrals and episcopal schools were maintained by bishops. The schools taught not only Christian doctrine but also the trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) and quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy). The espiscopal schools primarily trained priests but also enrolled others.Children of royalty and the higher social ranks attended the cathedral schools and othe rs were instructed in monasteries or nunneries, where girls predominated. Although children were encouraged to enter church vocations most entered secular ones. At the time of the Reformation, Martin Luther, to his dismay, found widespread ignorance when he visited the churches in Saxony. He proceeded to write Small Catechism in 1529 noting that the common people had little to no knowledge of Christian teachings and that many pastors were incompetent to teach. He criticized the bishops for this indiscretion (Schmidt 176).Luther urged a state school system â€Å"to include vernacular primary schools for sexes, Latin secondary schools, and universities. † He also said that parents who failed to teach their children were â€Å"shameful and despicable† (Schmidt 177). Education in early America was built on the heels of the Reformation of the sixteenth century which â€Å"stressed reclamation of all of life, with education as an essential transforming force (DeMar, America ’s Christian Heritage, 39). Modeling the Academy of Geneva (founded by John Calvin in 1559), universities sprang up that would apply the Bible to all of life (DeMar 39).On of the first colleges to be founded was Harvard in 1636 three years after John Eliot (1604-1690) first proposed a college for Massachusetts Bay. Harvard’s curriculum emphasized the study of biblical languages (Hebrew, Greek, and Aramaic), logic, divinity (theology), and communication (public speaking and rhetoric). Latin also linked students to classical studies and the writings of the church fathers (DeMar 43). The Puritans held to the belief that the collegiate education proper for a minister should also be the same for educated laymen.There was no great distinction between secular and theological learning (DeMar 44). The early motto of Harvard was Veritas Christo et Ecclesiae (â€Å"Truth for Christ and the Church†). Harvard’s motto today has been reduced simply to Veritas (DeMar 45) . Other early universities built exclusively on Christian principles were William and Mary (1693), Yale (1701), Princeton (1746), King’s College (1754), Brown (1764), Rutgers (1766), and Dartmouth (1769) (p. 42). The education of colonial children was provided by a curriculum of three books in addition to theBible: the Hornbook, the New England Primer, and the Bay Psalm book. The Hornbook, a single parchment attached to a wooden paddle, contained the alphabet, the Lord’s Prayer, and religious doctrines written or printed on it. The 1690 first edition of the Primer contained the names of the Old and New Testament books, the Lord’s Prayer, â€Å"An Alphabet of Lessons for Youth,† the Apostle’s Creed, the Ten Commandments, the Westminster Assembly Shorter Catechism, and John Cotton’s â€Å"Spiritual Milk for American Babes† (DeMar 41). The Primer was the most commonly used textbook for almost 200 years.Another popular textbook was The Mc Guffey Reader (Schippe 9). Noah Webster, educator and compiler of the 1828 An American Dictionary of the English Language wrote: â€Å"Education without the Bible is useless. † (DeMar, America’s Christian Heritage, 40) Christian faith was integrated into every facet of education in early America. Christianity’s influence on language, literature, and the arts is often overlooked and even taken for granted. Without the Bible much of what we enjoy today would be non-existent. The English language incorporates many words and phrases taken from the Bible when first translated.In 1380 John Wycliffe translated the Scriptures in its entirety and from it appears many of the words we still use today including the words adoption, ambitious, cucumber, liberty, and scapegoat among others (Schippe 12). William Tyndale translated the first English translation from the original texts. A gifted linguist skilled in eight languages with impeccable insights into Hebrew and Greek, T yndale was eager to translate the Bible so even â€Å"the boy that drives the plow† could know the Bible (Schippe 13). Some familiar words and phrases of his include: â€Å"let there be light (Genesis 1. 3),† â€Å"the powers that be (Romans 13. ),† â€Å"a law unto themselves (Romans 2. 14),† and â€Å"fight the good fight (1 Timothy 6. 12)† (Schippe 13). The influence of Tyndale on the English language was solidified in the publication of the 1611 King James Bible which retained about 94 percent of Tyndale’s work (Schippe 12). A renowned scholar on the literature of the Bible, Alistair McGrath notes, â€Å"Without the King James Bible, there would have been no Paradise Lost, no Pilgrim’s Progress, no Handel’s Messiah, no Negro spirituals, and no Gettysburg Address† (Schippe 12). Despite the hostility and persecution towards the Christians in the early centuries under Nero and Domitian and ater under the Catholic Church prior to the Reformation the Scriptures were meticulously copied by the priests and monks which in later years were translated into the languages of the common people even under threat of punishment (Schippe 14). Tyndale first worked in secret and when later betrayed and about to be burnt at the stake he called out, â€Å"Lord, open the King of England’s eyes. † Within a year King Henry allowed English Bibles to be distributed. Two million English Bibles were distributed throughout a country of just over six million nearly seventy-five years after Tyndale’s death (Schippe 14).Writers, artists, and musicians over the centuries have been greatly influenced by the Bible. From Dante to Milton to Fyodor Dostoyevsky, the words and themes found in the Scriptures have made their way into much of the literature we study and enjoy today. Other great writers in the history of Western Civilization include Chaucer, William Shakespeare, John Donne, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herma n Melville, William Blake, T. S. Eliot, and William Faulkner, to name a few (Schippe 44). Art depicting biblical scenes was made popular especially during the Renaissance with artists such as Raphael, Michelangelo, and Rembrandt.Johann Sebastian Bach, one of the most famous composers, was greatly influenced by the Scriptures. His Magnificant was written for the Christmas service of 1723 at St. Thomas’s Church in Leipzig (Schippe 237). The cantata, a genre of vocal music in the Baroque period and a key part of the German Lutheran service, was primarily used in Bach’s music. A deeply religious man, Bach signed his cantatas â€Å"S. D. G. , which stands for Soli Deo Gloria—â€Å"to God alone the glory† (Schippe 237). Many other forms of music known today have Christian roots such as the sonata, the symphony, and the oratorio.Most forms of music began as psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs and the outgrowth from there progressed as the monks and churches spre ad throughout the ages. Ambrose (340-97) first had members of his congregation sing psalms antiphonally and allowed all people to participate in the morning and evening church services by setting the words of his hymns to â€Å"an easy metrical form, the iambic diameter (Schippe 316). Biblical stories were dramatized and performed in song as early as the ninth century. A well-known church drama in the tenth century was Visitatio sepulchri (The Visit to [Christ’s] Sepulcher). Schmidt notes there is good eason to believe the opera evolved out of church dramas that appeared five hundred years before the Renaissance (316-17). The works of Handel, Beethoven, Mozart, and Mendelssohn among others have greatly been influenced by the words of the Bible; oftentimes the music itself directly reflected that influence (Schippe 328-29). With the publishing of Andrew Dickson White’s A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom in 1896 the idea that Christianity w as responsible for the arrival of science has largely been pushed out of the minds of the people, especially in academic circles (Schmidt 218-19).However, there is a pronounced difference between the pagan and Christian religions, that being the Christian presupposition of one God who is a rational being. Schmidt asks the question, ‘If God is a rational being, then may not human beings, who are made in his image, also employ rational processes to study and investigate the world in which they live? † (219). It was Robert Grosseteste (ca. 1168-1253), a Franciscan bishop and first chancellor of Oxford University, who first proposed the inductive, experimental method and his student, Roger Bacon (1214-94) who asserted that â€Å"all things must be verified by experience. Nearly three hundred years later Francis Bacon (1561-1626) gave momentum to the inductive method by recording his experimental results. Bacon has been called â€Å"the practical creator of scientific induc tion. † Besides his scientific interests he also devoted time to theology and wrote treatises on the Psalms and prayer (Schmidt 219). The inductive empirical method guided by rational procedures stood in stark contrast from the ancient Greek perspective of Aristotle which had a stranglehold on the world for fifteen hundred years.Even after these empirically minded individuals introduced their idea the scholastic world for the most part continued to hold to Aristotelianism which was the real â€Å"struggle† between the Catholic Church and science (Schmidt 219-220). One other prominent presupposition of Christianity is that God, who created the world, is separate and distinct from it unlike Aristotelian philosophy which saw the gods and universe intertwined. Pantheism regarded the scientific method as sacrilegious and an affront to divine nature and thus only in Christian thought where God and nature are separate would science be possible (Schmidt 221).Schmidt quotes Lynn White, historian of medieval science, as saying â€Å"From the thirteenth century onward into the eighteenth every major scientist, in effect, explained his motivations in religious terms† (222). William Occam (1280-1349) had a great influence on the development of modern science. His concept known as â€Å"Occam’s Razor† was the scientific principle that states that what can be done or explained with the fewest assumptions should be used. It is the principle of parsimony.As was common with almost all medieval natural philosophers, Occam did not confine himself to scientific matters and wrote two theological treatises, one dealing with the Lord’s Supper and the other with the body of Christ, both of which had a tremendous impact on Martin Luther’s thinking (Schmidt 222). Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519), while a great artist and painter was also a scientific genius who analyzed and theorized in the areas of botany, optics, physics, hydraulics, and ae ronautics. However, his greatest benefit to science was in the study of physiology in which he produced meticulous drawings of the human body (Schmidt 223).Andreas Vesalius (1514-64) followed in Da Vinci’s footsteps. In his famous work, De humani corpis fabrica (Fabric of the Human Body), published in 1543, he corrects over two hundred errors in Galen’s physiological writings. (Galen was a Greek physician of the second century) The errors were largely found by dissecting cadavers (Schmidt 223). The branch of genetics flourished under the work of Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), an Augustinian monk, who after studying Darwin’s theory of evolution rejected it (Schmidt 224). In the field of astronomy great advances were made under devout Christian men Copernicus, Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo.In physics we encounter Isaac Newton (1642-1727), Gottfried Leibniz (1646-1716), Blaise Pascal (1623-62), Alessandro Volta (1745-1827), Georg Simon Ohm (1787-1854), Andre Ampere (1775-1836), Michael Faraday (1791-1867), and William Thompson Kelvin (1824-1907). These men held to a strong Christian faith as evidenced by their writings. Before he died, Kepler was asked by an attending Lutheran pastor where he placed his faith. Kepler replied, â€Å"Solely and alone in the work of our redeemer Jesus Christ. † Kepler, who only tried â€Å"thinking God’s thoughts after him,† died with the Christian faith planted firmly in his mind and heart.His epitaph, penned four months before his death stated: I used to measure the heavens, Now I must measure the earth. Though sky-bound was my spirit, My earthly body rests here (Schmidt 230). Such was the mindset of the fathers of modern science who held to deeply religious beliefs and saw no contradiction between faith and science. Had it not been for those men who believed in a rational God who created rational men who sought only to understand the world that God had created and obeyed the command to ha ve â€Å"dominion† (Genesis 1. 28) over the earth, science would not be as it is today.History books are filled with the rich details of men and women whose lives were changed by Jesus Christ and impacted the world through ideas found in Scripture in a wide array of disciplines. To deny the influence of Christianity on Western Civilization is to deny history altogether. Although at certain times there loomed dark areas in church history by those who deviated from the faith the overall positive contributions far outweigh the negative. There is no mistaking the fact that Christianity has changed the world for the better. Works Cited DeMar, G. (2001).God and Government: A Biblical and Historical Study. Powder Springs, GA: American Vision. DeMar, G. (2003). America’s Christian Heritage. Nashville, TN: Broadman & Holman Publishers. Morris, B. (2007). The Christian Life and Character of the Civil Institutions of the United States. Powder Springs, GA: American Vision. The Ref ormation Study Bible. R. C. Sproul, gen. ed. Orlando: Ligioner Ministries: 2005. Schippe, C. , & Stetson, C. (2006). The Bible and Its Influence. Fairfax, VA: BLP Publishing. Schmidt, A. (2004). How Christianity Changed the World. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan.

Vaccination And Its Effects On Children And Public Health

The means of dealing with infectious diseases that endanger individual and public health have evolved over the years. In 1789, however, the most protective technology used to prevent epidemics was introduced by physician Edward Jenner; vaccination. Vaccine efficiency continues to develop and become more advanced, producing immunity to infectious diseases from 90 to 100 percent of the time today. Because of inoculation, millions of people worldwide are immunized from fatal epidemics. However, because of unsubstantiated fears, many parents have been withholding vaccines from their children. Despite this, parents should not have the right to withhold vaccines from their children for philosophical reasons. Vaccines are the best way to prevent disease, vaccine exemptions endanger individual and public health, and without widespread inoculation, controlled diseases will rebound. Vaccination is both the most efficient and the most reliable modern technology used to prevent epidemic outbreak s. This is partly why it seems inconceivable for parents to refuse to vaccinate their children. According to Dr. NoÃ'‘l Merino, a Ph.D. certified author, educator, and philosopher, [i]mproved hygiene and sanitation have helped stop the spread of germs and viruses, but history shows that vaccine-preventable diseases dropped dramatically the years vaccinations were licensed[...] [a]mong children born in one year, scheduled childhood immunizations are estimated to prevent forty-two thousandShow MoreRelatedThe Importance Of Vaccinations1372 Words   |  6 PagesVaccinations have proven time and time again to be an effective form of preventive medicine, but in recent research it has been associated with serious developmental problems. The controversy over whether childhood vaccines are actually the cause of these development issues has been an ongoing debate for 2 centuries and is even more prominent in society now as more research is becoming available to the public, even if some of it says there is no link between the two. Parents and guardians now alsoRead MoreCompulsory Vaccinations And The Public Health Intervention Essay1324 Words   |  6 Pagesto compulsory vaccinations, the public health intervention will always have negative or harmful effects in combination with the benefits of compulsory vaccinations. For those that stand behind the argument that immunizations are unnecessary in our children, have argued that the vaccine industry has misrepresented the safety of vaccines. They also have argued that they have covered up information regarding certain vaccinations to gain from the financial standard. In order for the public and researchersRead MoreVaccinations Should Be Mandatory Vaccinations1495 Words   |  6 PagesThe government should mandate vaccinations, and although it would sacrifice the liberty and choice for public health it would keep the well-being and health of everyone much more safe and away from the risk of disease. Most people agree t hat vaccinations should be mandated because of how being vaccinated keeps people safer in public environments since being vaccinated helps stop diseases from being spread, as proven by science, but people who do not agree with vaccination mandation most of the timeRead MoreVaccines And Vaccines Are Made A Huge Impact On Humanity1494 Words   |  6 Pagesthere are many health professional, experts, doctors, and parents who believe that vaccination is a lifesaver. Vaccination is a controversial topic for many parents and guardians of children. Vaccines are made to save lives and reduce outbreaks; people should not second guess vaccines and should instead take precautions. Illnesses occurs yearly and it can affect people of all ages, especially in children. According to Immunize Children: â€Å"It’s been known for some time that children and adolescentsRead MorePrevention And Prevention Of Immunization1113 Words   |  5 Pagesdiseases that can be deadly especially to young children and infants. The process, as explained by the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), is referred to as the â€Å"4:3:1:3 series,† which represents the number of dosages of vaccines required to fend off diseases such as mealses, mumps, tetsnus, and many others (â€Å"Immunization†). In recent years there has been a movement mainly empowered by new mothers to forgo some or all vaccinations for their children. 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While some people feel the need that vaccinations are important to protect themselves from any illness or diseases. Vaccinations should be mandatory for all schools and health care purposes. For one, peopleRead MoreCultural Perspectives on Vaccination1164 Words   |  5 PagesOutline (Pro-vaccination) The debate is led by anti-vaccinators who oppose vaccinations on ethical, political, religious and medical safety grounds. On the other hand, pro-vaccinators argue that the health benefits of vaccines outweigh the very few adverse effects that they have, and that vaccines have been largely advantageous to public health. Main points of contention: Pro-vaccinators (usually health care specialists, microbiologists, governments, pharmaceutical companies) Vaccinations are an effectiveRead MoreThe Vaccine Controversy Essay examples1641 Words   |  7 Pagesmorality, ethics, effectiveness, and /or safety of vaccinations. The medical and scientific evidence is that the benefits of preventing suffering and death from infectious diseases outweigh rare adverse effects of immunization. Since vaccination began in the late 18th century, opponents have claimed that vaccines do not work, that they are or may be dangerous, that individuals should rely on personal hygiene instead, or that mandatory vaccinations violate individual rights or religious principlesRead MoreMajor Canadian Health Concern: Unvaccinated Children and the Spread of Preventable Diseases1179 Words   |  5 PagesThe debate over vaccinations causing autism is a very important health risk facing our country today. There is a misconception that these two things are related which this essay hopes to dispel. The current threat of unvaccinated children, due to parental concern over the risk of adverse effects from vaccination including autism or religious choice is a major Canadian health concern and results in misconceptions, outbreaks, and general false fear in parents. In 2001 a research paper titled â€Å"Ileal-lymphoid-nodular

The Nuiances of Essay for High School Application Samples

The Nuiances of Essay for High School Application Samples The essay, for some applicants, can be among the most stressful portions of the application procedure. One of the fundamental tasks of the application essay is to follow along with the directions. Some can ask you to fill up an application form, others might need an application letter. Since you can recall, a school application asks a couple of personal information regarding the applicant. In case the latter is true, the topic should be chosen dependent on its depth and controversial nature. The school will probably supply you with a word limit, and that means you want to opt for a topic that fits that word count. The purpose of this statement is to underline the point that you wish to make in the essay. Essay for High School Application Samples Ideas Some schools also need you to write more than 1 essay, and should you just assume you get to select from the 3 options when you were actually supposed to write three short essays, well that is definitely an issue. It's possible for you to use narrative essay examples high school to find out more. High school essays are structured very similarly whatever the topic and decent essay structure will let you write a crystal clear essay that flows from 1 paragraph to the next. Therefore, it's important to be certain your high school entrance essay is well organized. This is a difficult essay to write. You cannot afford a careless error inside this essay. An outline includes a list of points, which you plan to make in your essay. That means you can be certain of very good scholarship essay examples. Writing a high school essay if you've got the tips about how to do essay effectively. 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The Black Death An Epidemic Among Marmots - 3101 Words

The Black Death initially erupted on the Asian steppes as an epidemic among marmots. Fur of dead animals were collected and sold in bales to buyers from the west. It is likely that fleas from the bales jumped to potential human hosts. The Black Death’s first human outbreak began along the Volga River in the eastern part of European Russia. From there, the plague disease spread west to the Don River and down to the Black Sea, soon making its way to the Mediterranean ports of Europe (Ampel 1991, 659). The Black Death is known to have originated in Kaffa in the Crimea by 1343. The plague spread from the surrounding lands of the Golden Horde then southwards into the Caucasus, heading west into the Crimea. Upon entering the Crimea, it traveled southwards along the coast of the Black Sea to the Circassians, the Abkhazians and the Armenians where it spread into the Asia Minor, the Middle East and Persia (Benedictow 2004, 35-50). In October 1347, the Black Death travelled its way to Sicily, Italy. Twelve Genose galleys arrived at the port of Messina with plague-ridden sailors and within a few days, the plague took over the city (Ziegler 1969, 132). Feeling hopeless, the citizens drove the ill sailors from the port and as a result dispersed the plague around the Mediterranean. While the plague was found all over the city, citizens of Messina either fled to the countryside or the city of Catania. The Catanians kindly treated the distressed victims. However, they realized the trueShow MoreRelated Black Death Essay1184 Words   |  5 Pages Black Death, outbreak of bubonic plague that struck Europe and the Mediterranean area from 1347 through 1351. It was the first of a cycle of European plague epidemics that continued until the early 18th century. A cycle of ancient plagues had preceded these plagues between the 6th and 8th centuries AD; another cycle of modern followed them, but less deadly, plagues that began in the late 19th century and continue in the 20th century. The term quot;Black Deathquot; was not used to refer to theRead MoreThe Black Plague Of Middle Ages1257 Words   |  6 Pagesvile disease that enveloped Europe. The Black Plague thrived in the conditions that Europe and its climate harbored along with the filthy living conditions of European cities. The declination of population was immense and altered the way the economy, arts, and religion of Middle Aged society was structured. Carrying along with these byproducts of such a devastating epidemic are the emergence of influential artists and philosophers of the time. The Black Plague originated in China (Europe’s PlaguesRead More Health Risks and Obesity Essay1397 Words   |  6 Pagesthe four leading causes of death. Obesity can be linked to stroke, heart disease, cancer and diabetes, all serious health problems that can be fatal. Obesity is linked to 300,000 deaths annually in the industrial world (Flamholz, 2001). Often in society and in the medical community there exists a lack of understanding that obesity is in fact a disease and needs attention, otherwise the rates of many diseases will continue to climb. Obesity has moved to almost epidemic status in America. There areRead MoreCommunity Profile Essay5395 Words   |  22 Pagesbeing male [ONS, 2011]. Data released in 2009 by the Office for National Statistics (ONS) showed that 95.3% of the population of Stockton-on-Tees was white, with 2.5% being Asian/Asian British, 0.9% Mixed race, 0.7% Chinese or Other and 0.6% Black/Black British. There was a migration of 700 people of international origin resulting in an estimated 3.7% of the Stockton population being not born in the United Kingdom. The Health Protection Agency (HPA) state that in 2010 almost 12% of the populationRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pagesto work—such as Starbucks, Adobe Systems, Cisco, Whole Foods, Google, American Express, Amgen, Pfizer, and Marriott—have a big advantage. A recent survey of hundreds of workplaces, and more than 200,000 respondents, showed the social relationships among co-workers and supervisors were strongly related to overall job satisfaction. Positive social relationship s also were associated with lower stress at work and lower intentions to quit.3 So having managers with good interpersonal skills is likely to

Manage Resistance to Change Proactively free essay sample

Register for this journal is available at http://www. emeraldinsight. com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emeraldinsight. com/0262-1711. htm Managing diversity using a strategic planned change approach Earnest Friday Management in the College of Business Administration, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA, and Managing diversity 863 Received October 2002 Revised February 2003 Accepted February 2003 Shawnta S. Friday School of Business and Industry at Florida AM University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA Keywords Diversity management, Strategic management, Change management Abstract Many organizations have implemented various types of initiatives within the last few decades in an effort to deal with diversity. A possible missing vinculum (link) between how an organization deals with diversity and its impact on the bottomline is a corporate diversity strategy that is executed using a planned change approach to systemically manage diversity. While many organizations have implemented a corporate diversity strategy, most have not used a â€Å"planned change-corporate diversity strategy†. The lack of a â€Å"planned change-corporate diversity strategy† is quite likely to inhibit managing diversity from becoming systemic to an organization’s culture and its way of doing business, thus tending to disallow the potential bene? ts of diversity to be maximized. Hence, this paper offers a framework for using a â€Å"planned change-corporate diversity strategy† to: progress along the â€Å"diversity continuum† starting with acknowledging to valuing, and ultimately to managing diversity; and systemically managing diversity using a eight-step â€Å"managing diversity process†. Introduction Over the past few decades, academicians, practitioners and organizational researchers have recognized that diversity is a phenomenon that has a wide array of affects within the workplace, and society in general (Koonce, 2001; Stark, 2001; Williams and O’Reilly, 1997). In this paper, diversity refers to any attribute that happens to be salient to an individual that makes him/her perceive that he/she is different from another individual (Williams and O’Reilly, 1997). Some widely accepted differentiating attributes include racioethnicity (which encompasses race and ethnicity), gender, nationality, religion, functional expertise, and age. Even though racioethnic and gender diversity tend to receive the majority of the attention in the organizational diversity literature (Stark, 2001; Williams and O’Reilly, 1997), this de? ition allows for the frameworks offered to be applied to any type of organizational diversity salient to members. Diversity programs have been implemented in many multinational organizations, primarily, in an effort to improve working relationships Journal of Management Development Vol. 22 No. 10, 2003 pp. 863-880 q MCB UP Limited 0262-1711 DOI 10. 1108/02621710310505467 JMD 22,10 864 between white males, whose relative numbers continue to decrease, and demographically different individuals, whose numbers continue to increase in the workplace (Friedman and DiTomaso, 1996). While many multinational organizations have a corporate diversity strategy, most have not implemented it using the suggested planned changed approach posited in this paper. Given the intensifying â€Å"war for talent† in today’s competitive, global business environment, it is imperative that the execution and evaluation of a corporate diversity strategy use a planned changed approach to not only acknowledge and value diversity, but to also systemically manage and inculcate diversity into an organization’s corporate culture. This type of approach can contribute immensely to an organization’s ability to use all of its human capital as a strategic means to gain and maintain a competitive advantage in today’s dynamic, global marketplace (Richard, 2000). It has been purported that if diversity can be effectively managed in an organization, some potential bene? ts to the organization include greater creativity and innovation, and improved decision-making (Cox, 1991). Conversely, if diversity is not managed effectively, some potential major costs to the organization include, at a minimum, breakdowns in communication, interpersonal con? ict, and higher turnover (Cox, 1991). While there may not be much empirical evidence to substantiate claims that effectively managed diversity directly leads to bottomline increases (Chatman et al. , 1998; Richard, 2000; Stark, 2001), there is real-world evidence (e. g. Coca-Cola, Denny’s, Publix, and Texaco settlements) to suggest that not effectively managing gender and racioethnic diversity has been, and can be, detrimental to organizations and their bottomlines. Thus, it is a logical extrapolation that an organization’s ability or inability to create a culture in which diversity is systemically acknowledged, valued, and effectively managed is more likely to determine the affects diversity will have on it’s bottomline. Many organizations have implemented various diversity initiatives as a part of their corporate diversity strategy (Koonce, 2001), but most have not used a planned change approach to strategically align their initiatives with their long-term objectives and strategic positioning. It is highly probable that this lack of planned strategic alignment contributes immensely to the purported ineffectiveness of many diversity initiatives (Stark, 2001). Consequently, an organization that seeks to maximize the potential bene? s of diversity should devise a â€Å"planned change-corporate diversity strategy† prior to implementing diversity initiatives. The purpose of the planned change-corporate diversity strategy is to align the organization’s diversity initiatives (designed to manage diversity) with the organization’s strategic goals, and ultimately make managing diversity an integral part of the organization’s culture. An aligned planned change-corporate diversity st rategy will contribute immensely to the long-term effectiveness of diversity initiatives aimed at better managing all of he organization’s human resources. This is especially signi? cant for organizations with a highly diversi? ed workforce. With a planned change-corporate diversity strategy, diversity initiatives are aligned with organizational policies, procedures, and systems. Such alignment is desired to systemically reinforce an organizational culture that encourages the effective management of all employees in order to garner diversity’s purported bene? ts, including the end goal of increasing the bottomline. Thus, frameworks are presented for using a planned change-corporate diversity strategy to: advance from the initial passive states of acknowledging and valuing diversity to the ? nal active state of managing diversity on the â€Å"diversity continuum†; and systemically manage diversity using the speci? c eight-step â€Å"managing diversity process†. The diversity continuum and the planned change approach Valuing diversity and managing diversity as distinct phenomena Over the last few decades, a myriad of articles have been written on the subjects of valuing diversity and managing diversity (Wanguri, 1996). In some cases, valuing diversity and managing diversity have been considered, and sometimes used, interchangeable when, in fact, they are two different phenomena (Jenner, 1994). By the very nature of their de? nitions, valuing and managing diversity are distinctly different. Valuing refers to the relative worth, importance, or signi? cance of something, whereas managing refers to taking charge or coordinating and supervising situations. Given these de? nitions, valuing diversity should be considered a more passive phenomenon, where importance or signi? ance is given to individuals’ differences, which does not automatically lead to visible actions or reactions on the part of the individuals valuing the diversity or differences. Managing diversity, on the other hand, should be considered an active phenomenon, which involves supervising or coordinating and directing the diversity or differences individuals bring to the organization to ensure the organization’s strategic go als are being fully and effectively met. In other words, it refers to successfully organizing the organizational inputs of individuals with diverse backgrounds. This de? nition is consistent with the managing diversity de? nition given by Thomas’ (1991): â€Å"a ‘way of thinking’ toward the objective of creating an environment that will enable all employees to reach their full potential in pursuit of organizational objectives†. The diversity continuum As a result of the confusion in the literature between the two phenomena, valuing diversity and managing diversity, it is not dif? cult to understand why consensus does not exist on the claims of bottomline bene? s as a result of the attempts organizations have made to value and/or manage diversity. In addition to the confusion, lack of consensus could also be a function of the Managing diversity 865 JMD 22,10 866 complexity of the diversity concept in the organizational context. Given the complexity of diversity within an organizational setting, it is possible that perceiving it in terms of a set of three elements that delineates what to do with diversity may serve t o simplify or clarify the confusion in the diversity literature. Therefore, a diversity continuum is offered to guide researchers and practitioners in moving from the more passive states of acknowledging diversity and valuing diversity, on through to the more active state of managing diversity. As individuals ? nd themselves in situations with diverse individuals, they are likely to take one of two courses of action: avoid dealing with the diversity, or recognize that the diversity exists. In the case where individuals avoid diversity, they do not face the fact that diversity is an issue. It is likely that these individuals do not accept the idea that they are likely to be biased in their interactions with others that they perceive to be different from themselves. Although avoiding diversity is viewed as a possible response to diversity, it is not included in the diversity continuum. The diversity continuum is based on the assumption that individuals take the second course of action and recognize diversity. Once diversity is recognized, as previously stated, the diversity continuum serves as a framework to delineate the three potential states of dealing with diversity: acknowledging, valuing, and managing diversity. The three sequential components of the diversity continuum are: acknowledging diversity; valuing diversity; and managing diversity (see Figure 1). Acknowledging diversity, the ? rst component, refers to recognizing the existence of diversity or the individual differences individuals bring with them to a particular setting. In order for individuals to truly acknowledge diversity, they must be exposed to it, experience it, acquire knowledge about it, and they must develop an understanding of diversity. The second component of the diversity continuum is valuing diversity. Valuing diversity, as de? ed above, refers to the signi? cance or importance being given to the diversity or differences individuals bring with them to a particular setting. Having an appreciation for, as well as respect for, the differences that diverse individuals bring with them to the work setting can lead to the last component. The last component of the diversity continuum is managing diversity. As stated above, m anaging diversity refers to the planning, organizing, leading of individuals with differences or diversity in a particular setting, such that their inputs are used to accomplish the organization’s strategic goals. Even in racioethnically homogeneous organizational settings, organizations make large investments to ensure an appropriate organizational culture is fostered. An appropriate organizational culture is desirous, such that individuals are systemically managed to perform and accomplish its goals, not just hoping that their performance will somehow lead to the accomplishment of the organizations’ desired goals. Thus, similar systemic efforts are necessary in order to manage Managing diversity 867 Figure 1. The strategic management process emographically diverse individuals such that the organization can gain the maximum synergistic bene? ts from their contributions as well. The planned change approach Rather than being reactive and waiting for a â€Å"diversity crisis† to take place before a change is made (i. e. Coca-Cola, Denny’s, Publix, and Texaco settlements), an organization should be proactive in systemically Managing Diversity. Hence, an organization and its m embers should make the necessary changes to proactively move from just settling for the ? rst stage of acknowledging diversity to the ? al stage of managing diversity. The Lewin-Schein change model is offered as the theoretical framework to proactively and systemically facilitate the management of diversity in organizations. This planned change model is based on the premise that the organizational forces propelling change must subdue the forces resisting change for highly effective change to occur. Therefore, it is posited in this paper that the Lewin-Schein change model is a framework that can assist organizations and individuals in moving through the sequential elements of the diversity continuum. It is also posited that this model can be applicable at JMD 22,10 868 both the organizational and individual level for managing diversity. While Allen and Montgomery (2001) offered the Lewin-Schein change model as a framework for creating diversity, the model is offered in this paper as a framework for Managing Diversity. The Lewin-Schein change model involves three stages: unfreezing, change (moving), and refreezing (Lewin, 1951; Schein, 1992). For the organization or individual to experience successful change, the three stages need to be addressed in succession. Unfreezing using a planned change-corporate diversity strategy In the unfreezing stage, the organization’s or individual’s present culture (which includes perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors) toward diversity, needs to be unfrozen. This means there needs to be enough motivation within the organization or individual to want to change from its present state to the new desired state. Thus, in moving from one end of the diversity continuum to the other end, with managing diversity being the desired outcome, management must desire that its members move from just acknowledging and valuing diversity to managing diversity. As presented previously, managing diversity refers to systemically organizing and directing the inputs of all organizational members (including diverse individuals) to ensure the organization’s strategic goals are met. Likewise, the individual must want to move from just acknowledging and/or valuing diversity to the ? nal phase of managing diversity. At the individual level, this movement involves governing one’s actions toward diverse individuals in a way that allows for healthy, productive interaction with those diverse others. Therefore, to unfreeze the organization’s culture and its members’ current state of mind toward diversity, a planned change-corporate diversity strategy should be devised and aligned with the organization’s strategic positioning to reduce the forces that are striving to maintain the status quo (Dobbs, 1998). A ? rm’s strategic positioning The strategic management process is employed by many organizations in order to distinguish themselves from their competitors in the marketplace (David, 2001; Porter, 1985; Steiner, 1997). Although there are several schools of thought in the strategic management ? ld, the generally accepted components of the strategic management process are: strategy formulation, strategy implementation, and strategy evaluation as explained in Figure 2 (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998). Strategy formulation is comprised of developing or reviewing the organization’s mission, vision, and long-term goals; conducting internal and exte rnal assessments to identify the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT); setting selection criteria and selecting the strategies that will afford the organization the best strategic positioning relative to its competitors (David, 2001; Steiner, 1997). Strategy implementation entails allocating the appropriate resources to ensure the Managing diversity 869 Figure 2. The three levels of organizational strategy selected strategies are properly executed (David, 2001; Steiner, 1997). Strategy evaluation involves setting control processes to continuously review, evaluate, and provide feedback concerning the implemented strategies to determine if the desired results are being accomplished, such that corrective measures may be taken if warranted (Hill and Jones, 1998; Steiner, 1997). As illustrated in Figure 3, there are usually three levels of strategy associated with large-scale organizations. The corporate level strategy de? nes the organization’s purpose and the lines of businesses in which it plans to operate, thereby providing the overarching direction for the organization. If an organization only operates in one line of business, its corporate level strategy and business level strategy are effectively one in the same (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998). A business level strategy is the blueprint that should enable an organization to leverage its resources in order to differentiate itself from the competition within a particular line of business (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998). The functional-level strategies serve to support the organization’s business-level strategy by providing direction for the appropriate short-term activities required by each functional area to meet the goals established in the business-level strategy (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998). Consequently, having properly aligned corporate, business, and functional level strategies aid an organization in its efforts to accomplish its goals, thereby strategically positioning itself to successfully compete within the marketplace (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998; Porter, 1985). Combining highly differentiated and ef? cient human capital with clearly delineated corporate, business, and functional level strategies can prove to be a competitive advantage for an organization (Barney, 1991, 1997; Wright et al. , 1995). An organization must view strategies for developing and managing its employees JMD 22,10 870 Figure 3. Alignment between corporate strategy and planned change-corporate diversity strategy as a part of its overarching corporate level strategy if it desires to have highly differentiated and ef? ient human capital in today’s competitive, global environment. Therefore, one argument of this paper is that any organization seeking to realize the maximum bene? t from having a diversi? ed workforce should have a planned change-corporate diversity strategy that is aligned with the organization’s overall strategic positioning. Developing a planned change-corporate diversity strategy The organization â€Å"wishing to create an environment that enables all employees to reach their full potential will have to . . . change organizational practices as necessary† (Thomas, 1991). However, prior to changing any organizational practice, a comprehensive strategy for how to accomplish that change should be devised based on an in-depth understanding of relevant organizational dynamics (i. e. culture, structure, ? nancial position, strategic initiatives, etc). Theoretically, a strategy should precede the structure of an organization. Consequently, a planned change-corporate diversity strategy should be devised to align with the organization’s corporate strategy before structuring diversity initiatives (as illustrated in Figure 4), and reinforced using a planned change approach. Organizations that have elevated their diversity strategist to executive-level management are likely to have an overarching corporate diversity strategy in place. But, it is not as likely that the diversity strategist is using a corporate-wide planned change approach to systemically reinforce the proposed changes in the corporate diversity strategy throughout all of the Managing diversity 871 Figure 4. The diversity continuum organization’s policies, procedures, and systems. Regardless of whether an organization has a corporate diversity strategy or not, it may be necessary to superimpose a planned change-corporate diversity strategy over existing disjointed diversity strategies and initiatives. At the onset of such an endeavor or superimposition, corporate diversity mission statement, vision, and goals must be formulated to articulate the purpose diversity initiatives will serve within the organization and the desired outcomes to be achieved from such initiatives. The delineated desired outcome should be designed to systemically manage diversity. Conducting internal and external assessments are essential steps in devising a planned change-corporate diversity strategy. An internal assessment will allow the diversity strategist to decide how to position diversity strategies and initiatives within the organization’s structure, and to align them with all of the organization’s policies, procedures, and systems. To assess the external environment, the diversity strategist should use environmental scanning tools to extract best practices based on benchmarked diversity strategies and initiatives at other leading organizations. Through the internal assessment, the diversity strategist should become intimately familiar with the organization’s values, vision, mission, strategies, goals, and initiatives, all of which constitute a sound basis for understanding the organization’s culture, policies, procedures, systems, and overall strategic positioning. The diversity strategist must become equally familiar with the bene? ts and shortfalls of various diversity initiatives. The strategist must conduct an analysis to determine the most appropriate linkages between the organization’s overall strategic positioning, policies, procedures, systems, and its diversity initiatives. Before proceeding, the diversity strategist must recognize and effectively articulate a clear strategic ? t and alignment amongst the organization’s overall strategic positioning, policies, procedures, systems, JMD 22,10 872 and diversity. Both strategic ? t and strategic alignment are necessary to strengthen the business case for allocating resources to support the planned change-corporate diversity strategy. In order to realize the maximum bene? ts from diversity, the planned change-corporate diversity strategy needs to be properly executed, evaluated and refrozen to ensure that the stated goals are being met, and that the organization’s culture and members are moving toward and sustaining the desired state of systemically managing diversity. Moving to systemically managing diversity Once the present state is unfrozen, the move that will allow the organization’s culture and members to advance to the desired state should be put in place. In this case, the move is to culturally reengineer the organization and its members to the true state of managing diversity by implementing the managing diversity process. The social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) is offered as the theoretical framework for the managing diversity process. It has also been offered as the theoretical framework for developing training programs in the cross-cultural and expatriate literature (Black and Mendenhall, 1989; Harrison, 1994). There are four major tenets of social learning theory: motivation, attention, retention, and reproduction (Bandura, 1977). These tenets are re? ected in the eight steps of the managing diversity process. In an effort to truly manage diversity, a change in the attitudes and behaviors of individuals, and in organizations’ systemic and institutional ways of doing business is required. Therefore, it is posited that utilizing the tenets of social learning theory can aid in the acquisition of the learning that is necessary for organizations to maximize the inputs of all of its diverse members. The planned change-corporate diversity strategy serves as the motivation for the learning of new behaviors and attitudes. Hence, once the planned change-corporate diversity strategy is articulated, the move through the eight steps of the managing diversity process should be instituted to assist individuals and organizations in culturally reengineering and moving to the desired state of managing diversity. The eight sequential steps of the managing diversity process include: (1) exposure; (2) experience; (3) knowledge; (4) understanding; (5) appreciate; (6) respect; (7) modify attitudes and behavior; and (8) healthy interaction. All of these are undergirded by tolerance (see Figure 5). The acknowledging diversity component of the diversity continuum is composed of steps (1)-(4), and they re? ect the â€Å"attention tenet† of social learning theory. The valuing diversity component of the diversity continuum is comprised of steps (5) and (6), and is re? ective of the â€Å"retention tenet† of social learning theory. Steps (7) and (8) constitute the managing diversity component of the diversity continuum and the â€Å"reproduction tenet† of social learning theory. The movement through each of the eight steps requires individuals to progressively develop appropriate skills to enable them to manage how they deal with individuals whom they consider different from themselves. Therefore, executing the eight steps in the managing diversity process serve as the necessary movement required to progress from acknowledging and valuing diversity to managing diversity. The true movement through the eight steps from acknowledging diversity to managing diversity is a paradigm shift, in that it entails a change in the treatment of diverse individuals (Fitzpatrick, 1997). Managing diversity 873 Diversity training In order for an organization to realize the potential bene? ts that can be afforded by employing diverse individuals, there needs to be a paradigm shift in which the inputs of diverse individuals are systemically managed within an organization to enable the successful accomplishment of its strategic goals. Training of individuals is viewed as a necessary tool to facilitate the organization in achieving its goals. Diversity training should be viewed no differently than any other type of training in which an organization invests. Therefore, it should also be viewed as a necessary tool to manage members’ behaviors and their ability to work productively with diverse individuals. After canvassing the literature, it has been noted that most diversity training programs merely raise individuals’ awareness of or sensitivity to diversity (Grubb, 1995; Jenner, 1994). Some few diversity training programs go as far as attempting to change individuals’ perceptions of diversity and how they communicate with people different from themselves (Grubb, 1995). However, these programs tend to be offered to only select employees, and they tend to be short in duration, ranging from a one-hour session to a series of one-day sessions several times a year (Koonce, 2001). The major drawbacks to most existing diversity training programs are that: . they do not build skills to facilitate individuals’ ability to actually manage their interactions with individuals different from themselves; . they are not rigorous nor time-intensive enough to create a paradigm shift in individuals’ treatment toward individuals different from themselves; and JMD 22,10 874 Figure 5. The continuous managing diversity process . there are no enduring reinforcement mechanisms embedded in the organization’s culture to ensure all individuals’ inputs are successfully managed to met the organization’s strategic goals. Managing diversity As a result, most (if not all) existing diversity programs have not been successful in creating enduring change in the way individuals interact with individuals different from themselves, nor have they been successful in changing their organization’s culture to one that systemically manages diversity. In order to create enduring change in individuals and the organization’s culture, members of the organization at all levels need to participate in diversity training that encapsulates the comprehensive managing diversity process. The outcomes that should be expected from participation include, but are not limited to, skill building in the following areas: the ability to clearly articulate their ideas and feelings; con? ict management skills; effective giving and receiving of feedback; effective listening; group observation skills; and group decision-making skills, all of which will facilitate modi? d attitudes and behaviors, and healthy interaction with diverse individuals. Individuals have to come to grips with their feelings, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors toward diversity and others with whom they are different. In the ? rst step of Exposure, individuals provide public notice of where they are at that point. They do this by: laying open who they are; divulging where the y are; unmasking themselves; and receiving others’ culture. Step (2), experience, involves gathering information through personal involvement, encountering, seeing ? rst-hand, and living through events. In the third step of Knowledge, individuals become well informed, thus able to be conversant because they become familiar or acquainted with the culture of others. Knowledge serves as the basis for step (4), understanding. Because of their grasp of cultural realities, individuals are able to comprehend (understanding) relevant cultural dynamics, which leads them to be sensitive, and enables them to share unique insights and perceptions. In step (5), appreciate, individuals’ acceptance of the worth of a person’s culture and values makes it easier for them to welcome and â€Å"justly† estimate diverse individuals. Resultantly, individuals are able to respect (step (6)) diverse individuals; thus, they are able to pay attention, pay deference, and pay tribute to the values, worth, and culture of diverse others, as well as give personal consideration to the diverse individuals. Successful movement through the ? rst six steps, along with tolerance underpinning each step, should lead to modi? cations in individuals’ attitudes and behaviors toward diverse individuals, which is step (7), modify attitudes and behaviors. This change in attitudes and behaviors, again, along with tolerance should lead to healthy interaction (step (8)) with and amongst diverse individuals. Step (8) is a function of continuous acceptance and execution of steps (1)-(7). Therefore, this is a ? uid (not static) process that must be recognized for its ever-changing and 875 JMD 22,10 876 evolving nature. The requirements for successful execution of the managing diversity process are strenuous and time intensive because it requires individuals to modify their attitudes and behaviors. Thus, they must modify the way they interact with individuals different from themselves, and not just expect that they either avoid, acknowledge, or value those individuals that are different. Given that all individuals in today’s global business environment are likely to encounter others that are different from themselves on a frequent basis, the managing diversity process should be viewed as analogous to the open systems approach – it is a continuous process that maintains a constant reciprocal relationship with the environment. Refreezing the systemic management of diversity Successful movement through the managing diversity process requires individuals to change. Resistance to change is inherent in any change process, and it will be no different in this process (Harrison, 1994). Therefore, the managing diversity process is a ? uid, continuous process that needs to be systematically reinforced and embedded in the organization’s culture and individuals’ interactions, such that the organization’s culture and its members do not revert back to just acknowledging or valuing diversity. Hence, refreezing the desired state of managing diversity requires reinforcing the new perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors with emphasis on the modi? ed behaviors and healthy interactions individuals have adopted as a result of going through the managing diversity process. In order for individuals and organizations not to revert back to their previous states, the new desired state must go through the refreezing stage to be institutionalized. This should be accomplished through systemic, on-going training and daily interactions at the individual level, and through revised policies, procedures, and systems at the organizational level. At the individual level, the systemic, on-going training should not be just periodic training that merely exposes individuals to diversity. A great deal of time is necessary to cement these newly adopted attitudes, behaviors, and skills for healthy interaction. This kind of cementation is required for these newly acquired attitudes, behaviors, and skills to become totally embedded in the individuals’ natural way of interacting with diverse individuals. The systemic, on-going training needs to be skill-based and experiential in nature to promote long-term changes in the way individuals work with individuals different from themselves. This type of reinforcement at the individual level will contribute to the cultural reengineering that also must take place at the organizational level. To reinforce the desired state of managing diversity at the organizational level, revised recruiting, appraisal, development, and reward systems, as well as an enforceable diversity policy need to be implemented (Allen and Montgomery, 2001; Hemphill and Haines, 1998; Miller, 1998). The revised policies, procedures, and recruiting, appraisal, development, and reward systems need to re? ct the organization’s position on how the inputs of diverse individuals will be managed, such that their contributions fully aid the organization in meeting its strategic goals. A written, enforceable diversity policy, stating the systemic action steps and behaviors expected by all employees is a must as it relates to effectively managing the organizational inputs of all individuals. Everyone’s inputs should be effectively managed to contri bute to the achievement of the organization’s strategic goals. The revised policies, procedures, and systems should also align with the planned change-corporate diversity strategy. Given the resources and time required to revise and initiate implementation of the revised organizational policies, procedures, and systems, individuals are likely to resist these changes initially. Therefore, it is quite likely to be a dif? cult and time-consuming process to make the appropriate and necessary revisions to the organization’s policies, procedures, and systems. This is an essential and critical step necessary to ensure the organization and its members do not revert back to their previous attitudinal and behavioral states. It is paramount that revised policies, procedures, systems, and planned change-corporate diversity strategy are clearly communicated to all members of the organization to ensure that it can be appropriately recognized, executed, evaluated, and reinforced. To reinforce this cultural reengineering effort, management needs to initiate and actively participate in the refreezing stage, the same as they must genuinely participate at the unfreezing and moving stages. Potential limitations As with any theoretical model, there are limitations. One potential limitation of this notional model is that no matter how well it is implemented, there are likely to be some individuals whose attitudes may never change or they may continue to consciously or unconsciously show favoritism toward those whom they consider to be similar to themselves (Gilbert and Ivancevich, 2000; Miller, 1998). Another potential limitation is that subtle forms of biases against diverse individuals may still exist informally within the organization and/or outside of the work environment; thus, highly impacting individuals within the organization. Backlash is also a potential limitation; members of the majority are likely to perceived that they are being excluded at the expense of including diverse individuals (Hemphill and Haines, 1998). Additionally, if the training initiated to implement the managing diversity process is perceived as a bad experience, the organization’s leadership may abandon the initial implementation, hence dooming all future diversity efforts. However, by using the suggested planned change approach along with well enforced diversity policies and disciplinary procedures for violations of the diversity policy, it is more likely that individuals’ behaviors can be altered to be more tolerant of others whom they consider to be Managing diversity 877 JMD 22,10 different (Gilbert and Ivancevich, 2000). This will allow the talents, skills, and abilities of all individuals in the work setting to be used to meet organizational objectives. Conclusion Given that individuals are less willing to leave their differences outside the doors of the workplace (Thomas, 1991), an organization’s ability to systemically manage diversity will become more important, in years yet to come, if it wants to ensure its ability to compete successfully in the global marketplace. This paper suggests that, ? rst, a planned change approach should be used to systemically manage diversity, by developing and implementing a planned change-corporate diversity strategy. Second, organizations should execute their cultural reengineering efforts to move individuals and the organizational culture along the diversity continuum from the states of acknowledging and valuing diversity to the desired state of managing diversity. Movement to the desired state of managing diversity can be achieved by using the managing diversity process. It is also suggested that the organization needs to provide on-going training, and needs to institute new policies and procedures. Additionally, it must engage in appropriately different recruiting, appraisal, development, and reward systems that systemically reinforce the cultural reengineering of moving to the state of managing diversity. These new undertakings will ensure that the newly reengineered culture of managing diversity is inculcated into the organization’s culture, and its way of conducting business domestically and abroad. By adopting and executing the frameworks offered in this paper for ystemically managing diversity through a strategic planned change approach, managers will have created an organizational environment where they will be able to enjoy healthy, innovative, and productive interactions amongst diverse members of the organization. The following is a list of other potential bene? ts that may be derived from using the offered frameworks: . in general, individuals will develop an increased knowledge of and appreciation for other cultures; . individuals will learn to value and respect the cultural norms, behaviors, and attitudes of others; . here is likely to be a greater receptivity to necessary organizational changes; . there is likely to be a lessening of workplace anxieties; . a reduction in organizational con? ict; . a more pleasant work environment; and . increased performance and productivity. 878 In conclusion, the proactive management of diverse human resources will aid organizations in gaining and sustaining a competitive advantage in today’s dynamic global marketplace.